CLASSICAL APPROACHES: ANCIENT RHETORIC SOME CLASSICAL RHETORICAL CONCEPTS

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MAKING SENSE OF MESSAGES: A CRITICAL APPRENTICESHIP IN

RHETORICAL CRITICISM

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MAKING SENSE OF MESSAGES: A CRITICAL APPRENTICESHIP IN RHETORICAL CRITICISM

Mark Stoner California State University, Sacramento Sally Perkins California State University, Sacramento

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To my husband, Jim, who has patiently endured this process, and to my children, Kendra and Elliott, whose education I hope will be advanced by this work.

–S.R To my wife, Daria, who has been so patient and supportive, and to my children, Ian and Heather.

–M.S.

First published 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Published 2016 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Copyright © 2005 Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved.

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Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on appropriate page within text.

ISBN 9780205564514 (pbk)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2002109681 ISBN: 0-618-14488-9

TEXT CREDITS: page 145, Excerpt from “A Time for Peace” by

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Kendra Creasy. Reprinted by permission of the author; pages 145- 146, from Wil A. Linkugel, R.R. AIJen, and Richard L. Johannesen, eds., Contemporary American Speeches: A Sourcebook of Speech Forms and Principles, 5/e, p. 309. Copyright © 1982. Published by Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company; page 201, “Fantasy and Rhetorical Vision: The Rhetorical Criticism of Social Reality”, by Ernest Bormann, Quarterly Journal of Speech 58, 1972, pp. 396-402. Reprinted by permission of Taylor & Francis Ltd. Visit us at http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals; page 271, “Jewel Tones Return for the Holidays,” by Linda Pliagas from HispanicMagazine.com, December 2002. Reprinted with permission from Hispanic Magazine.

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C ONTENTS

PREFACE PART I INTRODUCTION

1 WHAT ARE RHETORICAL MESSAGES? CHARACTERISTICS OF RHETORIC

Rhetoric Typically Addresses Public Audiences Rhetoric is Purposeful Rhetoric Responds to and Creates More or Less Obvious Social Concerns Rhetoric Relies on Verbal and Nonverbal Symbols Rhetoric Shapes the Way People Think, Act, Believe, and Feel

DEFINITION OF RHETORIC RHETORICAL TERMINOLOGY WHY STUDY RHETORICAL MESSAGES? SUMMARY EXERCISES WORKS CITED

2 CRITICISM: WHAT CRITICS DO WITH RHETORICAL MESSAGES REACTION VERSUS CRITIQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF CRITICS

Critics Study Messages Systematically Critics Have a Responsibility to Teach Others

A CRITICAL STANCE: IN THE BALCONY HOW THIS BOOK CAN HELP MESSAGE ANALYSIS MATTERS! SUMMARY EXERCISES WORKS CITED

PART II PROCESS TO PRODUCT

3 FOUR KINDS OF CRITICAL THINKING CREATIVE AND CRITICAL THINKING THE PROCESS OF CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF MESSAGES

Description Analysis Interpretation Evaluation

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SUMMARY EXERCISES NOTES WORKS CITED

4 THE PROCESS OF DESCRIPTION APPROACHES TO DESCRIBING A TEXT

Planned Survey Questions

RECORDING YOUR THINKING APPROACHES TO DESCRIBING CONTEXT

Specific Circumstances Similar Circumstances or Similar Messages Rhetor and Audience

CONDUCTING RELEVANT RESEARCH TEXT-CONTEXT INTERACTION

Conformity Non-Participation Desecration Contextual Reconstruction

APPLICATIONS OF TEXT-CONTEXT INTERACTIONS SUMMARY EXERCISES NOTES WORKS CITED

5 THE PROCESS OF ANALYSIS NAMING THE PARTS OF THE MESSAGE

Using Search Models Using General Knowledge Recording Your Thinking

LOOKING FOR RHETORICAL PATTERNS Patterns of Repetition Patterns of Sequencing Patterns of Omission Anomalies to Patterns Patterns of Relationships

SAMPLE ANALYSIS DERIVING QUESTIONS FROM THE ANALYSIS SUMMARY EXERCISES NOTES WORKS CITED

6 THE PROCESS OF INTERPRETATION CHARACTERISTICS OF INTERPRETATION

Creative Thinking Process Subjective Thinking Process Making Inferences

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HOW DOES A CRITIC DEVELOP AN INTERPRETATION? Asking Questions from Analysis Comparing Observations from Analysis

SUMMARY EXERCISES WORKS CITED

7 THE PROCESS OF EVALUATION TYPES OF JUDGMENTS

Truthfulness Quality of Evidence and Reasoning Effectiveness Ethics and Values

SELECTING A TYPE OF JUDGMENT SAMPLE EVALUATION SUMMARY EXERCISES WORKS CITED

8 WRITING YOUR IDEAS EFFECTIVELY ARGUING YOUR CLAIMS ABOUT MESSAGES

Present New Ideas Make an Argument Support Your Thesis Logically Organize Ideas Write Well

DOCUMENTING YOUR SOURCES MLA Style APA Style

SUMMARY EXERCISES NOTES WORKS CITED PART III ANALYTICAL TOOLS PREFACE TO CHAPTERS 9–10 CLASSICAL APPROACHES

9 CLASSICAL APPROACHES: ANCIENT RHETORIC SOME CLASSICAL RHETORICAL CONCEPTS

Style Arrangement Delivery Memory Invention

THE CLASSICAL MODEL APPLIED SUMMARY EXERCISES NOTES WORKS CITED SUGGESTED READINGS

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10 CLASSICAL APPROACHES: NEW RHETORIC TOULMIN AND EVERYDAY ARGUMENT

Argument Fields Field Invariant and Field Dependent Elements of Arguments Modal Terms Force and Criteria The Parts of Arguments

PERELMAN AND THE NEW RHETORIC Reasonableness and Audiences The Universal Audience Means of Forming Good Opinions Creating Presence Using Argument Structures

THE NEW RHETORIC APPLIED SUMMARY EXERCISES NOTES WORKS CITED SUGGESTED READINGS

PREFACE TO CHAPTERS 11–13 DRAMATISTIC APPROACHES

11 THE NARRATIVE PARADIGM SOME VOCABULARY OF THE NARRATIVE PARADIGM

Narrative Elements NARRATIVE PARADIGM APPLIED TWO CONCEPTS—FOUR CONCERNS

Gettysburg Address and Probability Gettysburg Address and Fidelity

NARRATIVE APPLIED TO WWF SMACKDOWN! SUMMARY EXERCISES WORKS CITED SUGGESTED READINGS

12 FANTASY THEME ANALYSIS FANTASY THEME ANALYSIS CONTRASTED WITH NARRATIVE SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF FANTASY THEME ANALYSIS THE PROCESS OF FANTASY THEME ANALYSIS FANTASY THEME APPLIED: GETTYSBURG ADDRESS

Context Described Theory Applied Speech Analysis

THE FANTASY THEMES OF WWF SMACKDOWN! Interpreting Themes

SUMMARY EXERCISES NOTES WORKS CITED SUGGESTED

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READINGS

13 BURKEIAN ANALYSIS THE NEGATIVE AND HUMAN SPEECH

The Negative and Creation of Categories The Negative and Moral Order Identification and Persuasion Hierarchy, Guilt, and Meaning Victimage and Salvation

THE PENTAD TWO EXAMPLES OF THE PENTAD APPLIED USING PENTADIC RATIOS DISCOVERING MOTIVES BURKEIAN CONCEPTS APPLIED TO WWF SMACKDOWN!

Description Analysis Interpretation

SUMMARY EXERCISES NOTES WORKS CITED SUGGESTED READINGS

PREFACE TO CHAPTERS 14–16 SOCIOPOLITICAL APPROACHES

14 IDEOLOGICAL APPROACHES CRITICAL THEORY HEGEMONY AND MARGINALIZATION LEGITIMATION NATURALIZATION IDEOLOGICAL CONCEPTS APPLIED TO BEAUTY AND THE BEAST AND SHREK SUMMARY EXERCISES NOTES WORKS CITED SUGGESTED READINGS

15 FEMINIST APPROACHES LIBERAL FEMINISM CULTURAL FEMINISM POSTMODERN FEMINISM FEMINIST CONCEPTS APPLIED TO BEAUTY AND THE BEAST AND SHREK SUMMARY EXERCISES NOTES WORKS CITED SUGGESTED READINGS

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16 POSTMODERN APPROACHES DECONSTRUCTION

Signs, Signifiers, and the Signified The Absence of Referential Truth Binary Oppositions

IDEOGRAPHS DISCURSIVE FORMATIONS USING THE POSTMODERN APPROACHES POSTMODERN CONCEPTS APPLIED TO “AMERICA” SUMMARY EXERCISES NOTES WORKS CITED SUGGESTED READINGS

VISUAL APPROACHES

17 VISUAL COMMUNICATION VISUAL MESSAGES AND ARGUMENT THE NATURE OF VISUAL MESSAGES

Three Basic Concepts SEMANTICS AND VISUAL COMMUNICATION FUNCTIONS OF VISUALS IN PERSUASION

Violating Reality Visual Metaphor Parody Point of View

AN APPLICATION EXPANDING THE ANALYSIS SUMMARY EXERCISES NOTES WORKS CITED SUGGESTED READINGS

APPENDIX 1: SAMPLE ANALYSIS OF “SHE’S LEAVING HOME”

APPENDIX 2: SAMPLE STUDENT PAPER BARBARA JORDAN’S KEYNOTE ADDRESS AT THE 1992 DEMOCRATIC NATIONAL CONVENTION: A NEUTRAL APPROACH TO A PARTISAN TASK

APPENDIX 3: SAMPLE STUDENT ESSAY A RESPONSE TO THE DEATH OF A PRINCESS: THE FORM AND FUNCTION OF A EULOGY INDEX